Isotope Coded Affinity Tag: Applications and Benefits

Isotope Coded Affinity Tag: Applications and Benefits Proteomics is a vital and necessary branch of science targeted at the in-depth study of proteins and their structure to understand their function; as an important pharmacological tool in drug discovery and drug development. The most widely used analytical approach to protein separation and quantification, usually involves integrating protein separation by 2D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with micro capillary reverse phase-liquid chromatography protein identification; and finally, detection by mass spectrometry. However, the presence of limitations such as the lack of automation and high costs associated within the combination technique led to the research and introduction of a better and more reliable technique involving the use of isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). This report looks at the history of isotope coded affinity tags, its advantages over 2D electrophoretic techniques, the principles associated with the technique, its development over the years and finally its application and contribution to the growth and development of analytical science. It also aims to comment on future developmental routes for the technology. TABLE OF CONTENTS (Jump to) A. Background B. Introduction to protein quantification B.1. 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis B.2. Reverse Phase High Liquid Chromatography B.3. Mass Spectrometry B.4. Problems associated with 2DLC-MS combination technique C. Introduction to Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs)   C.1. Major advancements in isotope coded affinity tag approach D. Principles of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) D.1. Protein Sampling D.2. ICAT reagent Tagging D.3. Peptide Isolation D.4. Protein quantification D.5. Peptide identification E. Applications of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) E.1. Applications in the quantitative identification of cancer  biomarkers E.2. Applications in the quantification of antimalarial drugs  and their metabolites in biological fluids E.3. Quantification of protein expression in oxidative-stressed liver  cells as a therapeutic target for the treatment of liver disease E.4. Quantitative analysis of defaulted proteins present in the brain as  a therapeutic target for the treatment of brain diseases E.5. Applications in the proteomic analysis of recombinant proteins F. Future Development of Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICATs) BACKGROUND Proteins are very important components of biologically active systems and some of their functions include structural foundation (connective tissue), transportation (carrier proteins) or immunity (antibodies). Specific and selective protein-protein interactions within the body are the basis for key metabolic and kinetic pathways within living organisms. A disruption in a specific proteins interaction and function, leading to a small or large interference in the subsequent metabolic pathway within the body due to any number of reasons; is the major cause of disease which if not dealt with, can lead to fatality. For this reason, Proteomics is a vital and necessary branch of science targeted at the in-depth study of proteins and their structures; to understand their function as an important pharmacological tool in drug discovery and drug development. Developments in proteomics and genomics over the years through quantitative-structure activity relationship (QSAR) studies and computer aid ed drug design (CADD), has helped to identify novel drugs and their targets for action. INTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN QUANTIFICATION The use of Isotope coded affinity tags as a protein quantification method in proteomics was first developed in 1999 by Aebersold et al. to aid the detection and purification of recombinant proteins[1]. Before the research done in 1999, most widely used approaches to protein quantification were done by 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (2D PAGE) combined with micro-capillary Liquid reversed phase liquid chromatography (2DLC) and novel electrospray ionization (ESI-MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) technique for detection [2]. B.1. 2D POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS This is because 2D Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (2D PAGE) is very well known for its sensitivity and high resolving separation power. It is also a highly adaptable technique, and its resourcefulness makes it highly sort after for the separation of biological molecules including proteins, based on both physiochemical properties and other chemical-specific interactions. The limit of detection is well documented to a resolution of more than 7000 macromolecules in a singular separation. A large variety and combination of solvents and additives can be used with 2D-PAGE electrophoretic technique to ensure analytes solubility within complex protein mixtures. B.2. REVERSE PHASE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY The inclusion of liquid chromatography as a second separation step also allows for the further separation of the protein mixtures based on difference in retention properties of the components. Recent breakthrough in the analytical approach to liquid chromatography involves the used of two HPLC pumps connected through a detailed 6-port valve system; which results in a more comprehensive separation by gradient elution of complex protein mixtures at high speed and quick run times. B.3. MASS SPECTROMETRY Finally, a mass spectrometric technique (Electrospray ionization (EIMS) or tandem mass spectrometry (MSMS)) which provides a UV detection of protein and measures the mass to charge ratios of the eluted peptides is employed. The detector produces a comprehensive chromatogram by plotting UV signals against their corresponding reverse phase retention times, and then the ESI-MS/MS-MS provides mass information for the eluted peptides. Figure 2: The construction of a 2DLC column and its interface with mass spectrometry. (A) A pressure bomb is used for column packing and sample loading. (B) The flow rate of in the 2-D column is controlled at 100-300 nL/min, and ESI is achieved by applying 2 kV to the gold wire.[4 5] B.4. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE 2DLC-MS COMBINATION TECHNIQUE However, in spite of the popularity of the combination technique, a number of limitations exist that makes the technique far from perfect. It has been documented that complex proteins and peptides with very high alkalinity or basicity and some trans-membrane proteins cannot be separated by this combination method. Also during total cell analysis, the combinatorial technique was found to readily accommodate highly abundant protein separation with the lower abundant proteins being scarcely detected. The over process also requires several sequential stages including difficult techniques such as in-gel digestion; making the combination technique highly labour intensive, difficult to automate and hence non-cost effective. This called for a further development in proteomic research to overcome these problems by possibly avoiding the separation step by electrophoresis and hence the introduction of the use of novel Isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). INTRODUCTION TO ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS The approach of isotope coded affinity tagging mainly combined with a form of high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is a relatively new and improved method used in proteomics for the precise quantification and identification of protein sequences within simple or complex protein mixtures. It has been documented to be simpler as it is capable of directly quantifying the proteins from complex mixtures, eliminating the electrophoretic stage. This makes isotope coded affinity tagging more efficient, easily-automated and hence a lot less labour and cost intensive than the electrophoretic process. The use of ICAT is the new and preferred analytical method for protein quantification. Isotope coded affinity tagging is based on a class of chemical reagents called Isotope coded affinity tags (ICAT). The ICAT reagent occurs in two forms depending on the number of deuteriums; light containing none or heavy containing eight. ICAT reagents are made up of three major functional units: A distinct chemically reactive group responsible for the selective labelling of the SH groups of thiol (cysteine) residues, An isotope coded linker responsible for the soluble properties of the reagent and it also provides a site for the addition of the isotopic label, And a biotin affinity tag used to achieve protein isolation and identification. It depends on the principle of strong binding interaction of biotin and avidin. C 1. MAJOR ADVANCEMENTS IN ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAG LABELLING Since the technique was initially introduced in 1999 for the labelling of protein mixtures at low levels, there have been valuable technological advancements in the approach using isotope coded affinity tags (ICATs) within the pharmaceutical industry. These include: The design and modification of affinity tags to improve on the chromatographic separation process. [25] The use of variable peptide specific affinity tags to maximise large-scale quantification on individual processes. [25] An introduction to the combination of different tags to achieve maximum proteome industry [21] The use of exopeptidases to efficiently remove the affinity tags from the peptides in the purification stage [22, 23] D. PRINCIPLES OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAG (ICAT) APPROACH Isotope coded affinity tags are used for identifying and quantifying the protein content of two different cell states or population within a mixture. The technique is based largely on two concepts: The peptide sequence of the protein to be quantified (between 5-25 Amino acids long) contains sufficient information to identify that unique protein. And those peptides tagged with the light and heavy reagents respectively are chemically identical and hence serve as very ideal internal standards for quantification. Figure 4. A schematic diagram for the ICAT approach to protein quantification. The principles of Isotope coded affinity tags as documented by Aebersold et al. are divided into four stages: Sampling, Tagging, Isolation and Quantification. D.1. PROTEIN SAMPLING Firstly, two different protein samples containing reduced cysteine (thiol) side chains are individually derived; by breaking down the cell structure, and isolating and extracting the proteins required from the cell. D.2. ICAT REAGENT TAGGING For one of the protein samples, the light form of the ICAT reagent (containing zero deuterium) is introduced to covalently bind to the SH cysteine residues; whilst for the other, the heavy form of ICAT reagent (containing eight deuterium) is used. The individual labelled mixtures represent different cell states or populations. The two samples are then combined into one complex protein mixture and a protease enzyme is added to cut-up or cleave the larger protein molecules into tagged smaller peptides fragments. D.3. PEPTIDE ISOLATION Avidin is then introduced to the mixture to act as a magnet and due to the strong and highly specific binding interaction of biotin and avidin, the ICAT-tagged peptides are isolated from the mixture through affinity chromatography. The isolated peptides are then analysed and separated by micro-capillary high performance liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). D.4. PROTEIN QUANTIFICATION This is the most important step of the analytical process as the quantity and sequence identity of the proteins from which the tagged peptides originated, are automatically determined. Quantification is achieved by comparing the integrated peak intensities for simultaneously eluted pairs of identical, doubly charged peptide ions. The pair corresponds to the two different forms of the ICAT reagent with the mass spectrometer running successively in two modes. One mode measures the comparative fragmenting of peptides eluting from the micro-capillary column whilst the other records the sequence information of the tagged peptides in the same molar ratios as the corresponding proteins. This also means that the chemically identical ICAT-labelled peptide ions are readily identified because as they co-elute, they differ in mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio because of an 8 deuterium difference in the mass of the ICAT-reagents. D.5. PEPTIDE IDENTIFICATION The final stage of isotope coded affinity tagging involves an automated correlation with protein sequence data banks using algorithms and permutations, to identify the protein from which the sequenced peptide originated and hence identify the protein. A combination of all results generated on the chromatogram by the mass spectrometer; and analysis of the ICAT reagent-labelled peptides therefore determines the relative quantities as well as the sequence identities of the components of protein mixtures in a single automated operation. In mass spectrometry, the ratios between the intensities of the lower and upper mass components of these pairs of peaks provide an accurate measure of the relative abundance of the peptides (and hence the proteins) in the original cell pools because the MS intensity response to a given peptide is independent of the isotopic composition of the ICAT reagents. E. APPLICATIONS OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS The use of ICAT reagent -labelled internal standards, has now become a common and fundamental practice in quantitative mass spectrometry. It has been researched to great advantage in a number of different fields of biochemistry. E.1. Quantitative identification of Cancer biomarkers [9,10] Analytical methods that employ isotope coded affinity tags are very useful and hence popular in the development of high throughput approach to early cancer detection in humans. [9]The significant quantification and identification of cancer biomarkers using ICAT reagents is a therapeutic target for cancer treatment. In this case, protein samples containing cancerous and non-cancerous cells are denatured and reduced to expose the cysteine -SH peptide residues contained. They can then subsequently labelled with the light or heavy forms of isotope coded affinity tags in vivo using stable isotopic labelling (SILAC; (e.g., 2H, 13C, 15N, and 18O)) or in vitro using isobaric tags (iTRAQ). This approach allows expressed proteins and peptides in malignant, cancer-derived cells to be compared with non-cancerous cells.[8] The use of labelled peptides as internal standards allows for relative and/or absolute estimation and quantification of the abundance of the differential proteins present. Emer ging technologies such as the use of protein microarrays are opportunities presently being researched and developed for future improvements in cancer biomarker identification. [10] E.2. Quantification of antimalarial drugs and their metabolites in biological fluids [7] Malaria is a deadly disease responsible for millions of deaths every year, in many tropical and developing countries. Antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine, mefloquine and pyrimethamine and their metabolites; interact with specific dihydrofolate enzymatic sites in plasmodium falciparum malaria. Since enzymes are largely made up of proteins, many enzymatic functions are made up of peptide peptide interactions. Isotope coded affinity tagging combined with high performance liquid chromatography has been documented by Kalpesh N. P. et al, 2010 [7] to be a reliable method for the selective determination and quantification of these potent antimalarial drugs in biological fluids. ICAT reagents are very useful in the extraction stage of the antimalarial drug from a biological matrix as they provide high peptide selectivity and specificity, to avoid interference from multiple antimalarial combination, or endogenous peptides that exist within the matrix. The use of the ICAT approach has grea tly aided research and development into the pharmacokinetics of different antimalarial drugs especially Chloroquine.[7,8] E.3. Quantification of protein expression in oxidative-stressed liver cells as a therapeutic target for the treatment of liver disease [12] A major pathogenic event recurrent in several variations of liver diseases in humans, involves oxidative stress of the liver caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species. Hepatocytes normally have mechanisms responsible for the regulation of oxidative and anti-oxidative molecules within the cell. However, the presence of reactive oxygen species in the liver affects major cellular components including cell proteins, and eventually, the cells regulatory ability. This leads to metabolic or proliferative liver disease and eventual cell fatality.[13] Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are largely represented by mitochondria and cytochrome P450 enzymes in liver cells. The expression of certain protein molecules termed as biomarkers within oxidative-stressed liver cells, and their subsequent quantification using ICAT reagents, can enable an early detection of liver disease. It can also allow for the progressive monitoring of liver damage as a therapeutic target to the treatment of liver disease.[15] E.4. Quantitative analysis of defaulted proteins present in the brain as a therapeutic target for the treatment of brain diseases. The brain is a very complex structure, vital to the existence of mankind. However, a lot of the underlying mechanisms responsible for the normal function and mis-function of the brain have not been fully researched. Research into quantitatively characterising the human brain proteome and using the analysis to understand important cell signalling mechanisms [16], is a very important area of neuropoteomics (i.e. proteomic research and development). The large scale use of stable isotope coded affinity tags in quantitative analysis of complex brain matrixes has helped to provide internal standards for relevant peptides that are chemically similar but isotopically different. These internal standards can be used to correctly identify important biomarkers present in the brain as in epilepsy[17]; or absent biomarkers as in the pathogenesis of Parkinsons disease[18]. E.5. Applications in the proteomic analysis of recombinant proteins High-throughput approaches to the quantification and identification of proteins, is widely applied in the industrial synthesis of therapeutic enzymes. [19] Proteomic analysis on most recombinant proteins, struggle with very low yields and poor solubility which greatly affects the ability to achieve high-throughput protein purification. Quantitative methods that employ isotope coded affinity tags have been documented to be the only way to achieve selective high-throughput protein purification with improved yields, solubility and folding of the recombinant protein, during the process [19]. This is because, purification processes by biotin affinity normal resulting in great yields of over 90%, making it very economically favourable. Combinations of two or more isotopic tags are typically needed to make the most of high-throughput screening.[1] THE FUTURE OF ISOTOPE CODED AFFINITY TAGS (ICATs) The main application area of isotope coded affinity approach is in the identification of biomarkers as a therapeutic target for disease treatment and prevention. The future of analytical techniques that use Isotope coded affinity tags for peptide-labelling includes:

Activity Based Costing – Essay 4

Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Activity Based Costing Topic Gateway Series No. 1 1 Prepared by Stephanie Edwards and Technical Information Service Revised November 2008 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing About Topic Gateways Topic Gateways are intended as a refresher or introduction to topics of interest to CIMA members. They include a basic definition, a brief overview and a fuller explanation of practical application. Finally they signpost some further resources for detailed understanding and research. Topic Gateways are available electronically to CIMA Members only in the CPD Centre on the CIMA website, along with a number of electronic resources. About the Technical Information Service CIMA supports its members and students with its Technical Information Service (TIS) for their work and CPD needs. Our information specialists and accounting specialists work closely together to identify or create authoritative resources to help members resolve their work related information needs. Additionally, our accounting specialists can help CIMA members and students with the interpretation of guidance on financial reporting, financial management and performance management, as defined in the CIMA Official Terminology 2005 edition. CIMA members and students should sign into My CIMA to access these services and resources. The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants 26 Chapter Street London SW1P 4NP United Kingdom T. +44 (0)20 8849 2259 F. +44 (0)20 8849 2468 E. [email  protected] com www. cimaglobal. com 2 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Activity based costing Definition and concept ‘An approach to the costing and monitoring of activities which involves tracing resource consumption and costing final outputs. Resources are assigned to activities, and activities to cost objects based on consumption estimates. The latter utilise cost drivers to attach activity costs to outputs. ’ CIMA Official Terminology, 2005 A development of the principles of activity based costing (ABC) is activity based management (ABM). Operational ABM is defined as: ‘Actions, based on activity driver analysis, that increase efficiency, lower costs and/or improve asset utilisation. CIMA Official Terminology, 2005 Strategic ABM is defined as: ‘Actions, based on activity based cost analysis, that aim to change the demand for activities so as to improve profitability. ’ CIMA Official Terminology, 2005 The main focus of this topic gateway is ABC. However, the development of ABC into ABM will be discussed further under Application. Context In the current syllabus, CIMA students will learn and may be examined on this topic in Paper P1, Management Accounting Performance Evaluation, Chapter 8, Developments in management accounting, and Paper P2, Management Accounting Decision Management, Chapter 10, Activity based approaches. Study systems for these papers are available from CIMA Publishing. Related concepts Activity based management; activity based budgeting; time driven activity based costing. Alternative approaches Traditional costing approaches. 3 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Overview The concept of ABC was first defined in the late 1980s by Robert Kaplan and William Burns. Initially ABC focused on manufacturing industry where technological developments and productivity improvements had reduced the proportion of direct labour and material costs, but increased the proportion of indirect or overhead costs. Comparison of traditional costing and ABC The traditional method of costing relied on the arbitrary addition of a proportion of overhead costs on to direct costs to attain a total product cost. The traditional approach to cost allocation relies on three basic steps. 1. Accumulate costs within a production or non-production department. 2. Allocate non-production costs to production departments. 3. Allocate the resulting production department costs to various products, services or customers. This type of costing system usually allocates costs based on a single volume measure, such as direct labour hours or machine hours. While using such a simplistic volume measure to allocate overheads as an overall cost driver, this approach seldom meets the cause-and-effect criteria desired in accurate cost allocation. This method of costing has become increasing inaccurate as the relative proportion of overhead costs has risen. This distortion of costs can result in inappropriate decision making. ABC is therefore an alternative approach to the traditional method or arbitrary allocation of overheads to product, services and customers. Stage 1. Activity cost pools Material Handling Stage 1. Activity cost pools Cost per material movement OVERHEAD COSTS Procurement Cost per purchase order Product lines Set-up Cost per set-up Figure 1. Framework of activity based costing 4 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Application In contrast to traditional cost accounting systems, ABC systems first accumulate overheads for each organisational activity. They then assign the costs of these activities to products, services or customers (referred to as cost objects) causing that activity. The initial activity analysis is clearly the most difficult aspect of ABC. Activity analysis is the process of identifying appropriate output measures of activities and resources (cost drivers) and their effects on the costs of making a product or providing a service. ABC systems have the flexibility to provide special reports so that management can take decisions about the costs of designing, selling and delivering a product or service. The key aspect is that ABC focuses on accumulating costs via activities, whereas traditional cost allocation focuses on accumulating costs within functional areas. The main advantage of ABC is that it minimises or avoids distortions on product costs that might occur from arbitrary allocation of overhead costs. Steps in development of an ABC System ABC uses cost drivers to assign the costs of resources to activities and unit cost as a way of measuring an output. There are four steps to implementing ABC. 1. Identify activities The organisation needs to undertake an in-depth analysis of the operating processes of each responsibility centre. Each process might consist of one or more activities required to produce an output. 2. Assign resource costs to activities This involves tracing costs to cost objects to determine why the cost occurred. Costs can be categorised in three ways: i. Direct – costs that can be traced directly to one output. For example, the wood and paint that it takes to make a chair. Indirect – costs that cannot be allocated to an individual output, that is, they benefit two or more outputs, but not all outputs. For example, maintenance costs or storage costs. ii. 5 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing iii. General/administration – costs that cannot be associated with any product or service. These costs are likely to remain unchanged, whatever output is produced. For example, salaries of administration staff, security costs or depreciation. 3. Identify outputs Identify all of the output for which an activity segment performs activities and consumes resources. Outputs might be products, services or customers. 4. Assign activity costs to outputs This is done using activity drivers. Activity drivers assign activity costs to outputs (cost objects) based on the consumption or demand for activities. ABC in practice ABC activities have been around for nearly 20 years and many companies in a variety of sectors have implemented activity based thinking. ABC and ABM have brought about radical changes in cost management systems. The principles and philosophies of activity based thinking apply equally to service companies, government agencies, process and manufacturing industries. Management practices and methods have changed over the last decade and will continue to change. Organisations have moved from managing vertically to managing horizontally. There has also been a move from a function orientation to a process orientation. However, management information systems to track and provide information about the horizontal aspects of business have lagged significantly behind managers’ needs. ABC and ABM fill this information gap by providing cost and operation information that mirrors a horizontal view. ABC focuses on accurate information about the true cost of products, services, processes, activities and customers. Using ABC, organisations gain a thorough understanding of their business processes and cost behaviour during ABC analysis. Management then applies this insight to improve decision making at operating and strategic levels. This is then known as ABM. Simply, ABM is ABC in action. 6 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Better management activity based costing survey: how ABC is used in the organisation This detailed study of how organisations are practically applying ABC can be found on the BetterManagement. com website (to access this study you must register, and then click on the link to activity based management in the top left hand corner of the home page). Available from: www. bettermanagement. om [Accessed 4 November 2008] The study was carried out in July 2005 to determine the state of ABC within over 500 organisations across numerous industries of different sizes and locations. It provides a useful and interesting insight into how ABC is used in organisations. Reported benefits †¢ †¢ ABC provides a more accurate method of costing of products and services. It allows for a better and more comprehensive understanding of overheads and what causes them to occur. It makes costly and non-value adding activities more visible, so allowing managers to focus on these areas to reduce or eliminate them. It supports other management techniques such as continuous improvement, scorecards and performance management. †¢ †¢ Reported drawbacks †¢ ABC can be difficult and time consuming to collect the data about activities and cost drivers. It can be costly to implement, run and manage an ABC system. Even in ABC some overhead costs are difficult to assign to products and customers. These costs still have to be arbitrarily applied to products and customers. †¢ †¢ Case studies Technical Matters: Activity-based costing. (PDF 99KB). This article, published in Financial Management (March 2005), provides a case study of implementation of an activity based costing system in the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/financialmanagement [Accessed 8 November 2007]. 7 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing The Value Creation Group website provides a comprehensive range of examples of case studies within different sectors where ABC has been implemented, including financial services and social services. Available from: www. valuecreationgroup. com [Accessed 4 November 2008] References Barrett, R. Getting a better view of business with activity based costing. CIMA Insight, February 2005. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/insight [Accessed 4 November 2008]. CIMA Technical Services. (2001). Activity-based management – an overview. (PDF 69KB). CIMA Technical Briefing. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/technicalreports [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Friedman, A. L. and Lyne, S. R. (1995). Activity-based techniques: the real life consequences. London: CIMA Publishing. Further information Articles Full text from Business Source Corporate through My CIMA www. cimaglobal. om/mycima [Accessed 4 November 2008] Allott, A. Activity Based Management can work for your company. CIMA Insight, January 2004. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/insight [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Barrett, R. How ABC can make shared services work. CIMA Insight, March 2005. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/insight [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Barrett, R. Get a better view of business with activity-based costing. CIMA Insight, February 2005. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/insight [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Cleland, K. As easy as CBA? Financial Management, September 2004, pp 28-32 Available from: www. imaglobal. com/financialmanagement 8 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Johnson, B. and Glad, E. Spring chicken or dead lunch? Chartered Accountants Journal, March 2006, Volume 85, Issue 2, pp 35-36 Kaplan, R. S. and Anderson, S. R. Time-driven activity-based costing. Harvard Business Review, November 2004, Volume 82, Issue 11, p. 131 Larson, P. and Kerr, S. Integration of process management tools to support TQM implementation: ISO 9000 and activity-based costing. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, January-March 2007, Volume 18, Issue 1-2, pp 201-207 Leahy, T. Where are you on the ABC learning curve? Business Finance, December 2004, Volume 10, Issue 12, p. 47 Liu, L. Activity-based costing. Financial Management, March 2005, pp 25-29 Max, M. Leveraging process documentation for time-driven activity based costing. Journal of Performance Management, November 2007, Volume 20, Issue 3, pp 16-28 Meelah, R. and Ibraham, D. N. Factors influencing activity based costing (ABC) adoption in manufacturing industry. Investment Management & Financial Innovations, 2007, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp 113-124 Plowman, B. Activity based management driving profitability. Accountancy Ireland, April 2007, Volume 39, Issue 2, pp 23-25 Abstract only from Business Source Corporate through My CIMA www. cimaglobal. com/mycima [Accessed 4 November 2008] Sandison, D. , Hansen, S. C. and Torok, R. G. Activity-based planning and budgeting: a new approach. Journal of Cost Management, March/April 2003, pp 16-22 Liu, L. Activity-based costing. Financial Management, March 2005, p. 29 Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/financialmanagement [Accessed 4 November 2008]. The competitive advantage of management accounting. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 2006, Volume 18, pp 127-135 Books Friedman, A. and Lyne, S. Success and failure of activity-based techniques: a long-term perspective. London: CIMA Publishing. (CIMA Research Series) 9 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Hansen, D. and Mowen, M. (2006). Cost management: accounting and control. Mason, OH: London: Thomson/South-Western Kaplan, R. and Anderson, S. (2007). Time-driven activity-based costing: a simpler and more powerful path to higher profits. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Turney, P. (2005). Common cents: how to succeed with activity-based costing and activity-based management. New York: London: McGraw-Hill CIMA Publications CIMA Technical Services. (2001). Activity-based management – an overview. (PDF 69KB). CIMA Technical Briefing. Available from: www. cimaglobal. com/technicalreports [Accessed 4 November 2008]. Websites University of Pittsburgh: Introduction to ABC An online presentation on ABC, by Narcyz Roztocki of Pittsburgh University. Includes links to further sources of information on ABC. Available from: http://digbig. com/4xtmc [Accessed 4 November 2008] The Activity Based Costing Portal Global community portal explaining all aspects of Activity Based Costing. Available from: www. offtech. com. au/abc/Home. asp [Accessed 23 March 2009] The Value Creation Group – Activity Based Costing Gateway site on Activity Based Costing. Available from: http://digbig. com/4xtmg [Accessed 4 November 2008] Where are you on the ABC learning curve? An article by Tad Leahy in Business Finance Magazine. Business Finance Magazine and ALG Software recently surveyed more than 250 finance executives from companies of all sizes and types about the scope and current status of their organisation’s ABC efforts. Available from: www. businessfinancemag. com [Accessed 4 November 2008] 10 Topic Gateway Series Activity Based Costing Bain and Company's 2005 Management Tools and Trends Survey. Shows that usage of ABM is slightly below the mean, but satisfaction with it is considerably below the mean. Available from: http://digbig. com/4xtmk [Accessed 4 November 2008] Copyright  ©CIMA 2006 First published in 2006 by: The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants 26 Chapter Street London SW1P 4NP United Kingdom Printed in Great Britain No responsibility for loss occasioned to any person acting or refraining from action as a result of any material in this publication can be accepted by the authors or the publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means method or device, electronic (whether now or hereafter known or developed), mechanical, photocopying, recorded or otherwise, without the prior 11 permission of the publishers. Permission requests should be submitted to CIMA at [email  protected] com

Violence And Tragedy Staples Of Journalism - 1499 Words

Violence and tragedy are staples of journalism because readers are attracted to gruesome stories and photographs. â€Å"If it bleeds, it leads† is an undesirable rule of thumb. Ethical problems arise for photographers and editors because readers are also repulsed by such events. It is as if readers want to know that tragic circumstances take place, but do not want to face the uncomfortable details. After publication of a controversial picture that shows, for example, dead or grieving victims of violence, readers often attack the photographer as being tasteless and adding to suffering of those involved. Photographs such as Fig. 3 for example, which was published by the New York Times in 1993, received a vast amount of hate against the†¦show more content†¦Goodwin wrote, â€Å"Pictures usually have more impact on people than written words. Their capacity to shock exceeds that of language† [p.90]. Other researchers have noted the eye-catching ability of charity ad vertisements in newspapers. Miller (1975) wrote. â€Å"Photos are among the first news items to catch the reader’s eye, a photo may catch the eye of a reader who doesn’t read an accompanying story† [cited in: Lester, Paul. 1991. [p.44]]. Blackwood (1983) argued that â€Å"People who either can’t read, or who don’t take the time to read many of the stories about charity do however scan the photographs alongside it† [cited in: Lester, Paul. 1991. [p,44]]. Nora Ephron (1978) disputed against the negativity around printing graphic imagery in her publication ‘Scribble Scribble Notes on the Media’, and asserted that disturbing charity images should be printed, â€Å"They disturb readers.† Ephron wrote, â€Å"it is exactly as it should be: that’s why photojournalism is often more powerful than written journalism† [p.60]. During the 1980s newspapers would continuously print gruesome images of worldwide atrocities. George Beveridge (1980) of the redundant Washington Star defended his paper’s publication of such photographs by writing, â€Å"newspapers were obliged to print them because they gave readers a dimension of understanding of the situation and the people involved that written words could not possibly convey† [cited in: Lester, Paul.

The Life of Mass Murderer, Henry Lee Lucas Essay - 1037 Words

The Life of Mass Murderer, Henry Lee Lucas Henry Lee Lucas enjoyed holding the title of the most infamous man on death row. His fleeting fame did not evolve from the three cold-blooded murders he did commit, but from hundreds of murders he did not. (Bonnie Bobit) He confessed to hundreds of murders to prove several points, as well as to delay his death sentence. Lucas lived through a childhood of abuse and neglect. If there is a case that proves a persons childhood is reflected in their later actions this could certainly be one. He was never taught that life had any value and perhaps this led him into a life of crime. (killer index) Henry Lee Lucas was born on August 23, 1936, in Blacksburg Virginia. Lucass mother was an†¦show more content†¦(Bonnie Bobit) Henry became a career criminal at an early age and was in and out of correctional institutions, mostly for burglary. There are a lot of discrepancies to actually when Henrys first murder was or how many that were committed. Perhaps the first was his mother. On January 11, 1960 after a few drinks at a bar, Henry and his mother got into an argument and he staped her to death, he supposedly raped her dead corpse after that. Not only did Henry enjoy necrophile, but bestiality. Henry was sentenced to 40 years in prison, however he only severed 10, and shortly after he was in prison he was transferred to a mental institution. Lucas was diagnosed a suicidal psychopath, sadist, sexual deviant (including necrophilia, and bestiality) Henry and his half-brother, who he was supposedly sleeping with, enjoyed killing animals and having intercourse with them. (House of Horrors) Two murders that police are almost certain that Lucas did commit were his girlfriend Becky Powell and an elderly lady he was taking care of, Kate Rich. Becky was only seven years old when her and Lucas a young adult, started dating. A while after she was killed, Henry confessed to cutting her into pieces and placing her body parts in several pillowcases. He had met Powell through his sidekick, Ottis Toole. Toole was a cannibalist who supposedly committed several disturbing murders. The two together were known as The Tag Team from Hell: the Sadist King and the Generalissimo of Pain.Show MoreRelatedDifference Between Mass Killers And Serial Killers1819 Words   |  8 PagesThe following paper discusses the intricate differences between a mass murderer and a serial killer. The discussion of the mass murderer and the serial killer is backed up with three points in which significant differences are depicted, the intention, the experiences in the earlier stages of life and mass media. The three points will follow the ideals behind the murders and where that spark appear in a murderer’s life. The mass murderer will be depicted in the media and shown as being something influentialRead MoreDo Bad Parents Create Mass Murderers? Essay1488 Words   |  6 Pagesfamous serial killers such as the infamous Fred West and Henry Lee Lucas were either from broken homes, or were the victims of abusive parents. Henry Lee Lucass mother was a prostitute who treated him with sadistic cruelty and neglect. After years of suffering from her physical and mental torture, when he turned twenty-three years old, he turned on his mother and murdered her. Over the next twenty-five years Lucas was found to have committed one hundred and ninety nineRead MoreEssay about Serial Killers Modus Operandi1702 Words   |  7 Pagesexceptions like schizophrenics but most of them look like everyone else. Serial killers, often, do not just kill, they might also eat their victims, torture, or rape them, and then they finish them off. A serial killer is different from a mass murderer, in that mass murderers kill many people in one instance, whereas serial killers annihilate individuals one at a time and do not go on to kill again until a month or so has passed. There is much agreement that all serial killers deserve to be punished it isRead MoreThe Culture Of America By Mark Seltzer1578 Words   |  7 Pagesfamous killers are intriguing and raise complex questions of why people do what they do. Therefore, serial killers are molded by family experiences, the oedipal complex, and the fear of abandonment. The early stage of life, the childhood years, is the most important stage of a person’s life. In these years, the ongoing transformation of words to actions, actions to habits become the puzzle pieces in forming the character of the youth today. As a young child, the brain acts like a sponge soaking in informationRead MoreOccurrence Of Abuse On The Childhoods Of Serial Killers1923 Words   |  8 Pagesqualities of a serial killer, including several well-known serial murderers. It also discusses the different types of serial killers and the characteristics that each type portrays. Occurrence of Abuse in the Childhoods of Serial Killers Serial murder is one of the most horrific acts that a person can commit. Multiple murder can be broken down into three different types: mass murder, spree murder, and serial murder (Knight, 2006). Mass murder involves killing three or more individuals in one place duringRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 Pagesworkers give up their comfort zones and seek out new social groups. tive Lakes Automotive is a Detroit-based tier-one supplier to the auto industry. Between 1995 and 1999, Lakes Automotive installed a project management methodology based on nine life-cycle phases. All 60,000 employees worldwide accepted the methodology and used it. Management was pleased with the results. Also, Lakes Automotive s customer base was pleased with the methodology and provided Lakes Automotive with quality award recognition

America and Homicide Essay - 1534 Words

America and Homicide The United States has been a world leader in homicide for centuries. Indeed, â€Å"since the early 19th century ...[America has been] the most homicidal country in the Western world† and holds that title today (Kelley, 2009). In a 2007-2008 list of 31 nations, only two nations, Mexico and Chile, had higher homicide rates (Comparison, 2010). Nations with higher populations, such as India and China have fewer homicides (Comparison, 2010). Further, a nation such as Japan, which has a lower population but a higher population density then the United States, has one of the world’s lowest homicide rates (Comparison, 2010). Population size and density, therefore, cannot be the chief reasons for this nation’s higher homicide rates.†¦show more content†¦Indeed, the American love of criminals always seems connected to this feeling. Americans champion criminals if the can view their actions as an attempt to stab back at those they blame for their misfortunes (such a s â€Å"robbing from the rich† or â€Å"killing dangerous people’) as a benefit to society. For example, John Dillinger’s bank robberies during depression era foreclosures satisfied the anger many Americans had against the rich banks who were taking their homes (Esposito, 2009). This may be the reason why many view certain criminals who take from the wealthy or who take action against government or political rulers as folk heroes – because they fulfill all public dreams of getting even, settling the score, and making things fair. Indeed, this is what may have driven Jared Lee Loughner to shoot Gabrielle Giffords. This point of view is seen today in gang members’ need to defend their honor by killing each other when members of other gangs â€Å"enter their turf† as it is in the murder of abortion doctors by Christian extremists who believe God is on their side because murder is wrong. Gun Laws American culture, of course, is also a reason why America is one of the few industrialized nations in the world where gun ownership is a civil right. Indeed, the lowest gun ownership rate in the world, 2%, belongs to the Netherlands and the highest, 49.1%, belongs to the United StatesShow MoreRelatedThe Same American Phenomenon Of High Homicide Rates1549 Words   |  7 PagesThe United States of America has one of the highest rates of Homicide in the developed world, though most people tend to agree that Russia’s homicide rate are higher, the question remains as to why. The following essay will look at three different perspectives of the same American phenomenon of high homicide rates. All three pieces state that homicide rates are uniquely high in the United States, this is in stark contrast to other like developed nations such as France, Germany, and The United KingdomRead MoreGun Control Of The United States1501 Words   |  7 Pagesof a firearm remains, the purpose of to killing people. The government in America has created laws for the use of guns, but not all people follow them. Gun ownership is the most basic American right and also one of the most contentious social and political issues of now a days. There are almost 300 million of private-owned firearms in the US, in this nation there is almost one gun for every man, woman and child in America. The third part of America’s the population owned at least one gun. Many ofRead MoreGuns : Danger Or Protection1593 Words   |  7 Pagesof a firearm remains, the purpose of to killing people. The government in America has created laws for the use of guns, but not all people follow them. Gun ownership is the most basic American right and also one of the most contentious social and political issues of now a days. There are almost 300 million of private-owned firearms in the US, in this nation there is almost one gun for every man, woman and child in America. The third part of America’s the population owned at least one gun. Many ofRead MoreThe Role Of Homicide Rates And A Variation Of Studies985 Words   |  4 PagesWritten Article Review on Homicide in Chile: Trends 2000 - 2012 I. NAME. Cole J. Leaf II. CLASS. Introduction to Justice A110 ? Monday and Wednesday 2:30-3:45 III. DATE. Wednesday, October 26, 2016 at 2:30 PM IV. ARTICLE CITATION Otzen, T., Sanhueza, A., Manterola, C., Melnik, T., Hetz, M. (2015, December/January). Homicide in Chile: Trends 2000 ? 2012. BMC Psychiatry. DOI:10.1186/s12888-015-0632-5 V. SUMMARY OF THE ARTICLE. This article is the breakdown of homicide rates and a variation ofRead MoreThe Problem With Gun Control Laws1479 Words   |  6 PagesOrozco 1 Berenia Orozco The problem with guns in America has been an ongoing issue for many years. According to statistics from the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, in 2010 alone there were about 31,076 deaths by gun and all were either homicides, suicides or unintentional shootings. 73,505 people were treated in the hospital for non fatal gunshot wounds in 2010 as well. Gun control laws are a benefit to America because they would help reduce gun deaths and other gun-related incidents allRead MoreGun Control Persuasive Essay1088 Words   |  5 PagesOne of the most argued topic in America right now is probably the issue regarding gun control. Hundreds of years ago, our Founding Fathers probably created the second amendment in order to give us the citizen the right to protect our own safety, but who would have thought that right has led to many heartbroken incidents, where numerous innocent people died as a result of a bad guy owning a gun. Along with most of us today, we still consider that the seco nd amendment in the Bill of Rights guaranteesRead MoreGun Violence Essay1156 Words   |  5 Pageshave access to a gun?. America has the highest number of gun violence between all the developed countries. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) show that on an average day, 93 Americans are killed with guns. Mass shootings and homicides, that happen quite often at recent times, are a big part of gun problems in the US. While Canada is bigger country than the US, but according to UN data, the US has almost six times more gun homicide than Canada. The US also hasRead MoreThe Blame Game Analyzing Gun Violence in America1720 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction In 1993, there were more than 18,000 firearm homicides in America. That number has been decreasing for the past two decades. In 2011, the reported number of firearm homicides was a little more than 11,000. In another part of the world, Germany was reported to have less than 200 firearm homicides, France less than 50. It is also estimated that there are around 270 million guns in America. This paper examines the possibility that if the American government put into place gun regulationRead MoreWhy Guns Should Not Have Regulation875 Words   |  4 Pagesto affect those that already existed (Lysy 2013). An outright ban on all guns and other weaponry for non-military use, both new and already present, needs to enact in America as the current laws are excessively lax and also contribute to an abnormally high gun-related homicide rate. A comparison between the gun laws between America and any other of the modern countries leaves a startling contrast. Contrary to the belief that most shootings occur where guns bans are in effect, all but four US statesRead More Gun Control Control Laws Decrease Crime Essay540 Words   |  3 Pagesowners is necessary because of the homicide rate involving guns and the violence by criminals using guns. Many people feel that gun control violates the right of the people given in the second amendment the right quot;to bear armsquot;. Opponents of gun control, including the National Rifle Association, better known as the NRA, argue that the quot;right To bear armsquot; is guaranteed in the second amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America and licensing restrictions penalize

A time when I felt isolated or lonely Free Essays

â€Å"Wow! A three days survival camp without a leader or teacher. Cool! Mum, can I join this camp?† I asked my mum eagerly. My mum, who was observing the book section, turned around and looked at the poster, â€Å"This?† â€Å"Yes,† I explained, â€Å"It’s a three days hiking camp. We will write a custom essay sample on A time when I felt isolated or lonely or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will hike with another two people from an over-sea scout team.† She examined the advertisement for a moment and said, â€Å"But there aren’t any teachers following you.† â€Å"That’s why I’m so keen to join this camp,† I exclaimed ardently. â€Å"This is the time when I can really use the skills I learnt in the past two months, surviving in the wild. And if I really have problems, I’m sure my amiable team mates can help me.† My mum studied the poster for a few more moments and finally said, â€Å"Well, if you’re so willing to join this survival camp, I will let you.† I kept on telling my parents how happy I was like a parrot at dinner time, but my dad’s facial expression stopped me from repeating. He had a small encouraging smile on his face, which looked pretty normal, however when I looked deep into his eyes, I could see that he’s worried. â€Å"What’s the matter, dad?† â€Å"Umm†¦nothing much. It’s just that I had a dog’s life the last time I had a survival camp, but I’m sure the one you joined is much better. Hope you have fun,† my dad hesitated strangely. I stared at him for a few seconds, figuring what’s that statement about. Slowly and uneasily, I replied, â€Å"Course I will.† The field day was a warm sunny day that you could get plenty of wind, perfect for hiking. When I arrived to the starting point, the team leader approached to me and informed me about my team mates who are both French but speak fluent English. Around five minutes later, two teenagers were heading to this direction. They both wore the scout suits but I was more interested on their badges. From what I could see, they had at least three rock climbing prizes, which show that they are brilliant at climbing. The team leader went to them and said, â€Å"I assume you are Dominic (pointing at the taller one) and this is John (point at the fatter one),† they both nodded, â€Å"and this is your team mate Kelvin.† I put out a hand for shaking, but they just stared at me like a foreigner. The leader ignored their reaction, and continued on his speech, â€Å"Before you guys set off, I want to ask you a question, have you got your map with you? (We all nodded), good, do you know where you’re going? (We all nodded), good, then I will leave and you may start now. Good luck.† During the next hour, I tried lots of ways to make friends with them but they just didn’t respond and what annoyed me the most is their language. I remembered very clearly that they both spoke fluent English, but what I heard is French, pure French. They chatted to each other and laughed very often while I walked on my own. I tried to calm my anger by enjoying the view, but everytime I felt better, they laughed loudly and exclaimed a phrase in French. I just couldn’t stand it anymore. I stomped to their side and asked, â€Å"Don’t you guys speak English? I’m also your team mate and I don’t understand one damn word you’re saying. Can you please switch your channel to English and show me some team spirit?† Dominic and John gazed at me for a few seconds like I was a stranger who just interrupted their great conversation, then they went back to their talk. After another fifteen minutes, they started scowling at me, spoke a few sentences to each other, and started smirking. The smirk made me saw the handwriting on the wall but the only thing I could do was to be more careful. I kept observing them to find out what they’re playing at but there’s nothing wrong for an hour, so I stopped the observation and went back to luxuriate the view. All of a sudden, I heard a loud shivery scream from Dom then I descried a furry gigantic animal being thrown at me out of the blue. An animal I fear the most, spider. I quickly dodged away and screamed as loud as I could. Then, under my shriek, I could hear two people laughing; Dom and John were guffawing their head off. John said breathlessly, â€Å"Do you see how scared he is? That’s the loudest scream I ever heard.† Dom nodded, went to the spider and picked it up. Was it my illusion or what? Did I just heard a language that I understand? And how came the spider didn’t struggle when Dom picked it up? I thought of a second then everything just came together at once. It’s true that they spoke English and I had just been tricked. The spider is fake! I looked at them disgustedly, rushing past them as quickly as I can. Their unbearable action just made me detest them more and didn’t even want to look at them. For the rest of the day, I walked in front of them without saying a word or trying to revenge. I decided not to disturb them and desired they would not irritate me, but this never happened. They kept on insulting me on everything I do. I tried to sing quietly to relax, and they cried stop and emphasised what a bad voice I had. I wished to rest for a moment, and â€Å"suck† was the reply. I walked wearily until evening when they wanted to stop and started setting up the tent. The tent was quite big and needed at least three people to set it up, so even though Dom and John wanted me to do all the work, they helped. They got in first and blocked the entrance with their back-pack. â€Å"No filthy Chinks allow in this clean tent,† John yelled. I stood there, looking blankly at the tent, and then a wave of anger filled me like a tsunami. I kicked the tent fiercely and tried to turn it over, but this action didn’t last long, John whirled out and grabbed me by my collar. â€Å"You’re not welcome in this tent, you Chink,† John shouted and threw me to the ground. I stared up at him, terrified as he thumped back into the tent. I got up slowly, examined the environment, trying to find a place without too many rocks. After lots of effort, I found a place with little amount of rocks near to the tent, I put my mat on it and lied down. Though there’s a mat, I could still feel the hardness of the floor, and the tiny sharp stones stinging my back. Small ants crawled on my right leg and bite, but I was too exhausted to scratch them. I looked at the dark blue sky, thinking about the horrible day I had just experienced, then my dad’s word faded into my mind, â€Å"†¦I have a dog’s life the last time I join a survival camp†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Although today was not as bad as a dog’s life, it’s not better. â€Å"I should listen to dad, he’s always right. I wonder what he is doing now; maybe he’s watching TV with mum†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I thought of the cosy bed in my room that doesn’t has any insects in it. I thought of my friends who respect me and never leave me alone. When I thought of my buddies, I could feel tears cascaded down my face. My friends and team mates were like angels and devils; two kind of extreme creatures. I kept on thinking of the good I had with my companions; how we laughed at each others’ jokes and helped each other out, and slowly I dozed off with a smile on my face. Next morning, I walked in front of them as usual, staying quiet. Not for long, we arrived to a slope narrow rock wall. The wall is similar to every wall you can see in the wild but this one have a rope hanging from the top. â€Å"This must be the string to tie up my safety lock,† I thought as I open my back-pack and found the lock. Dom looked down his nose at me and teased, â€Å"You suck at everything. Why do we need a safety lock for a short wall?† I ignored him, and continued to find the lock. Dom and John jumped on the wall and started climbing. Five seconds later, I heard a shriek of help above me. I quickly looked up and the sight stunned me. About five metres up the mountain, John was trying to make a big leap. Unluckily, he missed for only a few inches, so he tried to clutch on something, but fail. Everything seemed to happen so quickly, he fell on the ground, hand first, then blood started dripping from his hand and knee. Dom slowly got to the floor and looked at his injury but did nothing about it. â€Å"Don’t you know how to do first aid?† I questioned. They looked at each other shamefully and shook their head. I really wanted to laugh at them but I knew I should not. They didn’t show me respect but that didn’t mean I needed to do the same thing to them. I took out my bandage from my first aid box and wrapped it around John’s injury arm. I also took out a bottle of ethanol and washed the wound with it. After first aiding, my team mates both looked at me thankfully, â€Å"Thank you†¦um†¦a†¦sorry about what happened yesterday. W†¦we don’t mean it.† I put out a hand and say, â€Å"so can we be friends now?† They nodded and shook my hand. From then on, I didn’t hear a single insulting word or French from them, and the rest of the journey continued to be remarkable, in a good way. How to cite A time when I felt isolated or lonely, Essays

Contemporary Computing Management

Question: Contemporary computing can be seen as an assemblage. Discuss. To achieve this: Select TWO computing stories from the Live News exercise you fulfil in each weeks tutorial. Using Actor Network Theory as your primary tool for analysis, at a minimum: Describe the scales on which the actants in your stories act in the assemblage Discuss how these actions can enhance management functions Outline what issues/questions these actions raise. To achieve this, compare and contrast the viewpoints of a range of theorists and critics explored throughout the module. Conclude by summarising how your answers relate to the statement Contemporary computing can be seen as an assemblage. Answer: Introduction When we set out to explore the technologies which support citizen science, which is a method of enquiring which leverages the power of the crowds in order to collect as well as analyse scientific data's (Anon, 2015). The evaluation of these technologies as system assemblages, can be said to functionalities which are inter related as it supports the activities that are in pursuit of overall goals. The idea about assemblages helps us to understand the ways of compromising different platforms of citizen science with the help of wide varieties of functionality, but still they will be able to support similar kind of goals and aims. The concepts of build vs. shy are also introduced in this report as well as how different form of functionality for citizen science like science vs. support for the human actors as well as the web motivators and satisfiers which results in successful project outcomes. The term known as citizen science has been used to describe the collaborations in research which enables the non-scientific members from the general public who assist in the scientific investigations. They are also sometimes referred to as the science of crowd sourced (Anon, 2015). The projects related to the citizen science also include for examples which the participants have asked in order to classify the photographs of galaxies which have been captured by the space telescopes which are a source of sighting data for the ornithological research, or the observation of the sunflower plants to be pollinated by the bees during varying times of a day. Although their systematic extents of review and research questions differ extensively, these developments increasingly have a shared attitude to facts assortment for a huge numbers of entities are requested to present opinions or scrutinises via internet or mobile-oriented equipment (Anon, 2015). The exploration of the system assemblages of multiple number of citizen science projects over a comparative case study approach. On behalf of for each case study, the evaluation of the assemblage in relations of its general structure, build vs. buy decision-making, and its impact on technical objectives, applicant sustenance, inspiration, and gratification. Technology Of Assemblage Some of the initial characteristics of the analysis in this report is the consideration of the technological advancement of computers which has been enabled for the support of the project of citizen science as an assemblage of diverse loosely coupled systems which are rather singular systems. One can conclude from the approach of king towards computer technology scrutinization which is also known as the models of web. The web models accepts the computer system as the assemblage of various kinds of techniques, equipment's and applications which are known to be as the information processing capability (Anon, 2015). The approach has been distinguished from the models which have been created by the engineers or any discrete entity analysis, the main emphasis of which is the information processing and the equipment size capability. Human Actant Maximum citizen science projects influence numerous know-hows to sustenance numerous functional criteria, relatively arranging solitary, autonomous schemes, citizen science projects exist further to select as of numerous characteristics. Lone venture could select to embrace a web medium to maintain applicant association, whereas one more may interpret this function as redundant. Projects established by unpaid helper, unskilled workforce possibly will be liable to the abilities of the helper, have more partial or not as much of consistent statistics assortment device (Anon, 2015). Since of this societal character of citizen science, several of the character that forms a citizen science assemblage take about consultation protagonist. An opportunity improves communiqu among contributors and venture experts, subject folios deliver evidence or normalise drill, blogs as well as news influence out to contributors, and interaction forms permit participants to report affiliates of the project team. Even data collection utilities give participants a standardized avenue for communicating the work they have completed (Anon, 2015). Because most individuals' first encounter with a citizen science project is through its online presence, the citizen science assemblage also has a key role to play in motivating participation Use Of The Actor Network Theory (Ant) To Tackle The Complexity The use of ANT has proven to be useful in order to capture the actors which are involved in the development of citizen science assemblages for a number of motives. The first thing is to focus on the actor networks as the fundamental building block for the development of the citizen science website features (Anon, 2015). Sustaining descriptions are individuals whose non-appearance will reason a contributor to know-how discontent with a website though inspiring qualities are those which enhance inspirational worth to a website. The ANT expects Participants imagine websites to uphold a definite degree of attribute, and ample diminution of that feature will trigger discontent. At the same time, the inspiration to practise and return to a website derives on or after a hypothetically diverse set of characteristics. Motivating features include reasoning consequences such as acquiring latest comprehension or abilities, the joy of investigating a site, the incidence of interactive program, in tensity of contest, the proficiency to device collaboration, and the incidence of striking illustrations (Anon, 2015). The ANT helps in the facilitation of the formative assessments in order to study the game play of the multiple certainties while they recognize the consequences of the co-existence of the realities in the actor networks while challenging expectedness of the out-dated cumulative of the outcome focused on the fundamental methods. Role Of The Ant In Solving The Complexity EBIRD EBird is the co-operative venture of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and National Audubon Society. The aforementioned is a citizen science project that involves a world-wide association of ornithologists to give in to their surveillances via web-based tools (Anon, 2015). The system assemblage perspective can be applied to eBird at a variety of levels. For example, several projects are supported by eBird's Oracle database, forming a suite of related projects that can be thought of as one large system assemblage. Some challenges can now be approached through the hybrid network that has been identified through this research. For example, operating standard CMS software consents for affluent supervision of certain rudimentary subject matter, emancipating designer stretch for more intricate encounters in database policy, data collection, and delivering criticism to contestants (Anon, 2015). In general, eBird has approved the policy that undeveloped functionality can be off the shelf, where as additional progressive apparatuses should be custom. The Great Sunflower Project The Great Sunflower Project, is a citizen science project to gather data on bee pollination facility all over the United States. Participants in this venture practise a Drupal founded the website to acquiesce data about sunflower gardens that they have recognized, as well as the frequency of bees, stop at Sunflowers in a given a point of time. The Great Sunflower Project embraced a buy temperament and recycled the open source CMS Drupal to organise a venture at a minor price (Anon, 2015). The developer for the Great Sunflower Project was extremely sympathetic to open-source, CMS-based development. Citizen science projects have scientific aims which must be maintained over technology. At the same time, these objectives can turn into subservient to a diversity of reasons, including project resources and the need for actors. A badly amalgamated assemblage that is arduous to use or has technical troubles will likely nose-dive no matter how inspiring certain of its workings are (Anon, 2015). Enticing participants to a project, only to have them grow unhappy and leave, provides little benefit to the project or the participants and does nothing to serve science goals. Questionaire What are the factors which influence assemblage for citizen science project? What do typical system assemblage for citizen science look like? What are the effects of the composition of the assemblages on the scientific goals? What are the implications of design on the perspective of assemblage on citizen science technologies? What kind of factors affect the composition of the citizen science? What effect does the assemblage of citizen science have on scientific goals, satisfaction, motivation and participant support? What are the implications of design on the system assemblage perspective on the citizen science technologies? References Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://crowston.syr.edu/system/files/citizensciencesystemassemblage.pdf [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.227.9038 [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://www.livingknowledge.org/.../wp.../Brodersen-Network-Alliances.pdf [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://povesham.files.wordpress.com/.../haklaycrowdsourcinggeographi... [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://vision.cornell.edu/se3/.../Horn_Building_a_Bird_2015_CVPR_paper.pdf [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://reports-archive.adm.cs.cmu.edu/anon/hcii/CMU-HCII-14-109.pdf [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/2041-210X.12254/pdf [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Culturemachine.net, (2015). [online] Available at: https://culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/download/440/470 [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Dwrl.utexas.edu, (2015).Describing Assemblages: Genre Sets, Systems, Repertoires, and Ecologies | Welcome to the DWRL. [online] Available at: https://www.dwrl.utexas.edu/content/describing-assemblages [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]. Prestopnik, N. and Crowston, K. (2012). Citizen science system assemblages.Proceedings of the 2012 iConference on - iConference '12.