Servant leadership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Servant leadership - Research Paper Example At the organizational level, leadership remains core. Depending on the nature and effectiveness of the leadership employed in an organization, the organization might succeed and experience increased productivity, or it might experience adverse effects. This is mainly because, in an organization, leadership has an impact on employees, and other vital functions that determine the productivity level of the organization. This paper discusses leadership in an organization, mainly basing on the model of servant leadership that was advanced by Greenleaf H., and special attention is drawn to the not for profits organizations. All organizations must have a form of leadership; however, leadership varies depending on the type of organization. Therefore, there is a difference in the way leadership is practised in not for profit organizations and those organizations in the public sector. According to Erickson (2007) research on leadership in not for profit organizations is scarce, as more research efforts are aimed at the organizations in the public sector. Therefore, by focusing more on leadership in not for profit organizations, this paper will make important contribution to the knowledge on this topic. According to Eisenhower Dwight, â€Å"Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it† (Hughes et al, 2006, p. 405). This shows that for one to be a leader, he or she must have some kind of an influence on the followers. It can also be concluded from this definition that in order for a leader to ensure the success of their organization, he or she must create commitment among the followers, who are employees, and also ensure that the employees are willing to work towards improvement in different aspects of the organization. The past decades have seen great change in the social, economic, and political aspects in

Critically discuss issues with determining recommendations for vitamin Essay

Critically discuss issues with determining recommendations for vitamin D intake - Essay Example The proceeding process is their hydroxylation to form 25-hydroxyvitamin. The total of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 together with 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels in serum is used as an indicator of vitamin D nutritional status. Studies indicate that this level increases following exposure to sunlight, or dietary intake of vitamin D (Rajakumar et al., 2014). 25-hydroxyvitamin D is hydroxylated to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol) in the kidney, a reaction catalyzed by 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase. Regulation of this reaction is by serum phosphorus, calcium, parathyroid hormone (PTH), fibroblast growth factor 23 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D production has also been demonstrated in the skin, parathyroid gland, breast, colon, prostate, and immune system and bone cells. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D then binds to a receptor of vitamin D in the nucleus of a cell and recruits retinoic acid X receptor. This VDR/RXR complex binds small sequences of DNA called vitamin D response elements (VDREs) (Battault et al., 2013). It then initiates a cascade of molecular interactions that modulate the transcription of specific genes. Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis that are necessary for the maintenance of bone mineralization (Vieth, 2012). In the endocrine system Vitamin D regulates insulin secretion. Investigation shows that it is a potent immune system modulator. It also exhibits effects in the cardiovascular system regulating blood pressure. Severe vitamin D deficiency results in a condition known as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults since it is important for development and maintenance of the bone structure (Persson et al., 2013). Osteoporosis has been linked to secondary hyperthyroidism caused by vitamin D deficiency. Increased PTH secretion by the parathyroid glands result in increased bone resorption increasing the bone breakdown and precipitate osteoporosis. Cancer,

Impact of Inter-generational Relationships on Older Adults

Impact of Inter-generational Relationships on Older Adults Shum Wai Ki (Frank) How do Intergenerational Relationships Affect Older Adults and their Family Relationships? Intergenerational relationships have become an important topic in the fields of studying sociology and gerontology. In modern society, there are a variety of issues around older adults and their family relationships, and the intergenerational relationships have appeared to become the most significant one, due to the fact that older adults are receiving support and caregiving primarily from their adult children (Xu and Chi, 2010, p.49). Harmonious intergenerational relationships with family members are essential for seniors to achieve positive emotional outcomes in later life; on the other hand, broken intergenerational relationships are pernicious to older adults and would negatively affect their quality of life (Jeste, Depp Vahia, 2010, p. 78). Intergenerational relationships have been defined as the relationships that involving people in typically one or two generations (Birditt et al. 2012, p. 627). In many cases, intergenerational relationships can also refer as parent-child rel ationships between older parents and adult children. In fact, many seniors believe that parent-child relationships are their most valuable relationship, as well as a key factor for them to maintain the good quality of life (Shapiro, 2004 p. 127). Therefore, this paper will investigate the question, how does intergenerational relationship affect older adults and their family relationships?, and the thesis will be: successful intergenerational relationships are important to maintain older adults quality of life, as well as tightening their relations with their family members; and vice visa. First of all, intergenerational relationships have been categorized as a major component of the life course, especially in the later life. Shapiro (2004, p. 127) identify that intergenerational relationships can be measured by intergenerational solidary. Thijseen (2016, p. 593) has given two definitions of intergenerational solidarity: first, it is the ratio of practical multigenerational support; second, it is the norm and believe that generations think they should behave. Since the solidarity is an awareness that refers to the ideas and behaviors among different generations, it is subjective and related to individual opinions. Therefore, because of the different life experiences and generational status, it is obvious that the assumptions of the solidarity are various between younger generations and older generations. In fact, Shapiro (2004, p. 129) finds that older generations have a greater chance to identify themselves as having a greater closeness to their children, and younger generations would have a higher chance to report themselves as not to close to their parents. According to Xu and Chi (2010, p. 54), older adults who participate in their research have reported that intergenerational support is significant to them in many ways, such as financial support, instrumental support, and the feelings of being love and care. This implicates that intergenerational relationships could have impacts on seniors health and it is an essential element for seniors to maintain the good quality of life. However, many older adults report that they perceive and evaluate intergenerational relationships differently with their children. With reference to Chappell et al. (2007, p. 286), these differences can be explained by the concept of the intergenerational stake, which is the assumption that illustrating the differences of developmental needs between the two generations. Older parents are tended to invest more time, emotion, and resources on their adult children; adult children, on the contrary, are tended to emphasise the differences with their parents and requir e more independent from them. Therefore, older adults would contribute more and have a relatively positive rate on intergenerational relationships, but their children might have an opposite thought: they would have a weaker sense of closeness than their parents (Birditt et al., 2012, p.628). Shapiro (2004) conduct a research on the quality of the parent-child relationship by using the data from the National Survey of Families in 1996. The result finds that older adults generally have a higher chance to overreporting intergenerational solidarity than their children. For instance, only 6.4% of seniors report their children have frequently visited them, while 69.7% of adult children report they do well on visiting their parents. At the same time, 59.4% of seniors report they have a good quality of relationships with their children, while only 13.7% of adult children share the same thought (Shapiro, 2004, p. 137). Moreover, older adults would tend to have lower negative quality relation ships than their adult children, due to the fact that they believe they are not allowed to express negative feelings to their family members, but this belief does not appear in the younger generations (Birditt et al., 2012, p. 635). Besides, intergenerational solidarity can be affected by the living arrangement, as well as how much caregiving provided by their adult children. With reference to Chappell et al. (2007, p. 281), over 70% of seniors in Canada are living alone or with spouse, while only approximately 14% of them are living with their children. This implicates that the majority of seniors are distanced with their children and grandchildren. According to Stuifbergen, Delden and Dykstra (2008, p. 420), the term geographical distance between the parent and children can be defined as the measurement of the households distance between older adults and their children. In the Netherlands, the mean geographical distance between the parent and children is 31.28 km. The authors argue the distance is long and the geographical separation has created difficulties for adult children to provide caregiving to their parents, including unable to react when there are emergency accidents, unable to frequently visit their older parents, and communicate only through phone and letters. Sokolec (2016, p. 168) brings another point that there is an increasing demand for caregiving to older adults in recent years. She reports that the increasing older adult clients are because their family members are unable to take care of them. Therefore, many seniors have no choice but to unwillingly move from their own home to nursing home. Data from Statistic Canada also shows that the percentage of older adults who live in health-care institution have rapidly increased from less than 2% to around 10% in 2004 (Chappell et al., 2007, p. 281). Furthermore, cultural difference could affect intergenerational solidary. Cultural difference has been characterized as an important factor for intergenerational solidarity, especially among immigration families. Warburton and McLaughlin (2006, p. 48) uses an example of older adults in Australia, in which 32% of older Australian are either born overseas or from non-English speaking countries. Seniors who follow their adult children to move to a new country might experience cultural and language barriers. Furthermore, when they have grandchildren, they will also face problems of culturally and linguistically diverse with them. These problems include: unable to communicate through same language, cross-cultural ideological differences, cultural shock, and so on (Warburton and McLaughlin, 2006, p.55). For seniors, since they are born and raised overseas, they will have a higher chance of keeping their original cultural practices, which make them closely connect to their ethnic group but diverse from the dominant culture; on the other hand, for their children and grandchildren, they are more likely to assimilate and integrate with the dominant society and disconnect with their original ethnicity (Esser, 2004, p. 1130). Therefore, these differences create distance between seniors and their offspring, and their offspring might avoid close relationships with them (Klever, 2015, p. 348). Moreover, older adults play an important role in cultural maintenance, since the majority of them feel responsible for passing down cultural knowledge to their next generations (Warburton and McLaughlin, 2006, p.52). However, Shapiro (2004, p. 131) argue that children might refuse to practice cultural norms because they do not regard them as the filial obligation. For instance, if a households language is different from the mainstream language, the young generations might possibly refuse to learn that particular language. As a result, it might be hard to keep that language alive. This w ould intense the intergenerational differences because older adults tend to highly value their culture. When they cannot pass down cultural knowledge to their offspring, and their next generations do not acknowledge the culture, they might feel distressed and guilty for not fulfilling the responsibility to passing on their culture. Last but not least, since many seniors are not living with their adult children, and they are experiencing cultural differences with their next generations, these issues might lead them into emotional cutoff among the multigenerational family. With reference to Klever (2015, p. 341), the emotional cutoff has brought up three disadvantages to older adults. First, the emotional cutoff will isolate older adults from the instrumental and emotional of family support. In other words, older adults might have feelings of isolated and uninvolved from their family members. Second, emotional cutoff could cost younger generations having a lack of knowledge about their family backgrounds and cultures. With reference to Warburton and McLaughlin (2006, p. 50), older adults are viewed as repositories of traditions and knowledgeable to culture. However, the emotional cutoff has limited the effectiveness of passing down cultural knowledge, because of the lack of interaction between grandparents and gr andchildren. Third, it is harder for harder for seniors to develop emotional contact to next generations. Holton et al. (2008, p. 119) mention that wisdom comes with age because older adults have rich prior experiences and more capable of managing their emotions when compared to younger generations. Their wisdom, as well as their pieces of advice, are undoubtedly valuable to their offspring. However, these kinds of connections are harder to build, because of the emotional cutoff. In conclusion, successful intergenerational relationships can help older adults maintain the good quality of life and have positive connections with their family members. On the contrary, unsuccessful intergenerational relationships can bring harm to older adults, both psychologically and physically. Without a doubt, intergenerational relationships are having huge impacts on the later life of older adults. They are complicated, interconnected and are affected by cultural norms, individual experiences, and social structure. Intergenerational differences are subjective and originated from ideological and cultural differences among older parents and their adult children. To achieve intergenerational solidarity, Stolee et al. (2014, p. 712) suggest that continuously sharing opinions with family members is important for later life care planning. Also, seniors can make the important decision, such as living arrangement, together with family members, so that they can enhance their relations hips with each other. There are several limitations that path the way for future research. For instance, some issues could have significant impacts on intergenerational relationships but do not cover on this paper, including changing the role of women, changing family structure, remarriage and widowed, psychological problems and so on. Future research is suggested to continuously explore these unknown fields. Reference Birditt, K. S., Tighe, L. A., Fingerman, K. L., Zarit, S. H. (2012). Intergenerational  Relationship Quality Across Three Generations. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,67(5), 627-638. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs050 Chappell, N., McDonald, L. Stone, M. (2007). Aging in Contemporary Canada. 2nd  Ed. Prentice Hall, Toronto. Esser, H. (2006). Does the New Immigration Require a New Theory of  Intergenerational Integration?1. International Migration Review,38(3), 1126-1159. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00231.x Holton, E. F., Swanson, R. A., Naquin, S. S. (2008). Andragogy in Practice: Clarifying  the Andragogical Model of Adult Learning. Performance Improvement  Quarterly,14(1), 118-143. doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.2001.tb00204.x Jeste, D. V., Depp, C. A., Vahia, I. V. (2010). Successful cognitive and emotional  aging. World Psychiatry,9(2), 78-84. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00277.x Klever, P. (2015). Multigenerational Relationships and Nuclear Family  Functioning. The American Journal of Family Therapy,43(4), 339-351.doi:10.1080/01926187.2015.1051898 Shapiro, A. (2004). Revisiting the Generation Gap: Exploring the Relationships of  Parent/Adult-Child Dyads. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development,58(2), 127-146. doi:10.2190/evfk-7f2x-kqnv-dh58 Sokolec, J. (2015). The Meaning of Place to Older Adults. Clinical Social Work  Journal,44(2), 160-169. doi:10.1007/s10615-015-0545-2 Stolee, P., Zaza, C., Sharratt, M. T. (2014). Later Life Care Planning Conversations for  Older Adults and Families. Journal of Applied Gerontology,33(6), 710-736. doi:10.1177/0733464813500712 Stuifbergen, M. C., Delden, J. J., Dykstra, P. A. (2008). The implications of todays  family structures for support giving to older parents. Ageing and Society,28(03), 413-434. doi:10.1017/s0144686x07006666 Thijssen, P. (2016). Intergenerational solidarity: the paradox of reciprocity imbalance  in ageing welfare states. The British Journal of Sociology,67(4), 592-612. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12221 Warburton, J., Mclaughlin, D. (2006). Passing on Our Culture: How Older  Australians from Diverse Cultural Backgrounds Contribute to Civil Society. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology,22(1), 47-60. doi:10.1007/s10823-006-9012-4 Xu, L., Chi, I. (2010). Intergenerational Support and Self-rated Health among  Chinese Older Adults in One-child Families: Urban and Rural Differences. International Consortium for Social Development,1(32), 48-61.

Fodor’s Misconstrual of Wittgenstein in the Language of Thought :: Philosophy Essays

Fodor’s Misconstrual of Wittgenstein in the Language of Thought In his book, The Language of Thought, Jerry Fodor claims that i) Wittgenstein’s private language argument is not in fact against Fodor’s theory, and ii) Wittgenstein’s private language argument â€Å"isn’t really any good† (70). In this paper I hope to show that Fodor’s second claim is patently false. In aid of this I will consider Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations (243-363), Jerry Fodor's The Language of Thought (55-97), as well as Anthony Kenny’s Wittgenstein (178-202). First I shall summarize Wittgenstein’s argument; then I will examine Fodor’s response and explain why it is fallacious. In my view, Fodor is wrong because he takes Wittgenstein to be a verificationist, and also because he makes a false analogy between people and computers. Anthony Kenny, in his book Wittgenstein, provides a concise summary and penetrating interpretation of Wittgenstein’s so-called â€Å"private language argument† (henceforth â€Å"PLA†). According to Kenny, the basic agenda of the PLA can be summed up in a quotation from Wittgenstein’s Tractatus: "Scepticism is not irrefutable, but obviously nonsensical, when it tries to raise doubts where no questions can be asked. For doubt only can exist where a question exists, a question only where an answer exists, and an answer only where something can be said." (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 6.51) In making his argument, Wittgenstein addresses the belief that the knowledge we have of our own experiences can be expressed to ourselves or others, and that this expression does not assume acquaintance with the external world or other minds. Logically entailed by these beliefs is the idea that there is a private language in which words derive their meani ng by being linked with private experiences. In other words, a subject forms â€Å"internal ostensive definitions.† This means simply that the subject is exposed to and attends to an experience and associates it with a word. For Wittgenstein, this view is mistaken: experience is not private, and words do not acquire meaning by bare ostensive definition. Wittgenstein takes â€Å"private language† to mean a language in which words refer to the immediate private sensations of the speaker in this manner of private ostensive definitions. If a speaker has a certain sensation, she does not necessarily know that sensation only from her own case.

Representation of gender in Men Behaving Badly and Absolutely Fabulous Essay

Compare how the representation of gender is constructed by the way character’s appearance and dialogue in your two chosen television programmes In comparing Men Behaving Badly and Absolutely Fabulous I will find both differences and similarities in gender construction. Absolutely Fabulous is heavily set towards extreme female stereotypes and the male characters are mainly weak, whereas in Men Behaving Badly the male characters are more dominant and their attitudes and relationships to the female characters is more obvious. In the Absolutely Fabulous episode Menopause, there are many stereotypes regarding women. Through Edina we see the woman struggling to be a mother, have a career and delay the ageing progress. Edina wears clothes inappropriate to her age and applies a lot of vibrant coloured makeup to try and make herself appear youthful and fashionable which she miserable fails to do. Edwina’s language throughout the episode is far from the traditional stereotype of women being ladylike and polite. Edina is much the opposite, a very loud and flamboyant woman. This contributes much to her character as it emphasises her struggle to keep herself young and stylish. In this particular episode we see Edina’s PR company failing to strive alongside the rival company, and it shows the viewers Edina’s desperate desire to become famous and popular, which gives reason to her appearance. Edina’s attitude of old age is revealed when Patsy, her best friend and the person she is most clo se to, shows signs of age. Edina shrieks in horror at Patsy’s weak bones, and insists the menopause support group sit on bin bags. Although these actions are extreme, viewers who also fear the problems ageing brings may relate to her panic. The role of Patsy is played even more raucous and brash then Edina. Patsy’s character wears much more sophisticated clothes then Edina, although her make up is not as vibrant it is still thickly implied. This implies perhaps Patsy is just as scared of ageing as Edina, and her makeup is there to cover up tell-tale signs of ageing such as wrinkles and lines. In this episode Patsy appears in Edina’s daughters daydream, and in this we see Patsy acting the opposite of how she usually does. Patsy decides to have a baby, constantly wears an apron and speaks much more polite and quietly then her normal self. Through this opposite view of Patsy we get an idea of what her characteristics are normally. Through her dialogue in this daydream we hear comments that imply Patsy has never had a maternal instinct before. In telling Edina of her decision to have a baby, Edina cries â€Å"But you don’t have ovaries!† to which Patsy calmly replies â€Å"I do! They found them lodged up by my ribs were that silly Arab doctor put them!† Patsy’s dialogue conveys a lot of information about her character to the audience. The way Patsy reacts to her easily broken wrist shows her denial at the seriousness of her condition, and her reluctance to go to the doctor shows deep down she knows she is ageing. Patsy and Edina’s lifestyle is not that of responsible middle age women, at the very beginning of this episode we see the two of them using drugs and in their confusion mistaking a phone ringing for illogical things such as bees and shoes. The responsible character in the house is ironically Edina’s daughter Saffron. Saffron is a young university student and this group would normally be stereotyped as being careless, rebellious and wild, though in a reverse stereotype Saffron is in fact very sensible and intelligent! Saffron is dressed in smart trousers and a brown woolly pullover, has unruly hair and wears smart glasses. These clothes are not the sort of fashion for a girl her age, and it emphasises her reversal on the normal student stereotype. It is amusing to the audience as the mother and daughter seem to take on each other’s normal stereotypical characteristics. Edina hanging out with her best friend taking drugs, and Saffron attempting to control her. In comparison, the male characters of Men Behaving Badly lack responsibility and this relates to Edina’s neglect of parental duty. Gary shows lack of responsibility in his relationship with Dorothy, as he can’t seem to decide whether to kick out his best friend Tony or his girlfriend. As a thirty year old men it would seem obvious to choose Tony to leave, but the fact he debates over makes the scenario seem immature and amusing to the viewers. Gary is dressed smartly and although he runs a security company, he dresses his ageing employers in absurd security outfits which highlights his childish side. Gary talks in slang about Dorothy, referring to her as ‘his bird’ which shows he perhaps doesn’t respect her as a girlfriend quite as much as he should do at his age, as the term is more used with younger men as references to their new and latest conquest. Gary seems to value his late night drinks with his ‘mate’ Tony so much he actually considers Dorothy second best to him, and the stress of their reactions causes him to have nightmares ending in tragedy over him, which is ironic since they both move out in the end! Tony’s character is much more ‘laddish’ then Gary as he seems much more lazy and careless. Tony has no job and spends the entire episode thinking of ways to get his female neighbour into bed, and then attempting to tattoo himself. His clothes are scruffy and look old and well worn and he doesn’t seem to make much effort with his appearance. Tony is being stereotyped as what some people would perceive as a ‘normal man’, though perhaps more exaggerated than normal. His love of beer and his ‘mates’ make him fit the male pub crowd, his scruffy clothes and lack of interest in his appearance and his casual language and constant use of swearing is all seen as very manly. His attitude to Debs, his neighbour, is also a typical stereotype of men that only think about sex. Debs is a single, blonde attractive woman upstairs from the other three characters, and is constantly lusted after by Tony. Deb’s clothes are fashionable and sophisticated and she acts very ladylike. Deb’s appearance shows she looks after herself and takes time with her makeup and clothes. Deb’s character contrasts with the characteristics of Dorothy, who simply rushes out of the door once she is dressed in her nurse’s uniform. Dorothy is dark haired and is in a relationship with Gary, Dorothy looks smart but doesn’t seem to bother much with her appearance and make up, which shows her relaxed attitude around Gary. It highlights the idea that when women are single they make more effort with themselves, and it relates to Gary’s attitude to living with Dorothy. â€Å"Living with your bird is a bit like living at home with your parents. You have to keep your room tidy and you can’t put up the posters you want!† Dorothy uses sarcasm around Gary, and it seems she is just as bored of him as he is of her. Dorothy does not seem to show much affection to Gary, when she addresses him she uses a flat tone with not much emotion in her voice. Through Dorothy’s dialogue the viewers can pick up on faults in their relationship and her attitudes to Gary.

Narrative traits in Indian cinema Essay

In a nation that produces around 800 films a year Indian people see films a a very important part of their culture. For Indian people â€Å"cinema is integral to their lives; it is not a distant, two to three hour distraction, but an explicit life-style for them.†(Jaya Ramanathan). The large screen provides an alternative, an escape from the realities of day-to-day life. The protagonists are totally identified with, the hero is applauded, the virtuous is worshipped and the villain is condemned. The actors and actresses are household names; there is no escaping their omnipresence. Through this essay I will try to examine what makes Indian cinema Indian. By that I mean what narrative and visual traits are intrinsic to Indian cinema and have little relevance to cinema of America or Europe. The subjects I am going to look at are the song and dance routine, how it came about, what it means and why it’s so important to Indian cinema. I will look at the treatment of women and how sexuality of women is represented in Indian cinema, the importance of the actor within Indian society and will briefly look at the use of costumes and elaborate sets used within the Indian film industry. First I will briefly consider some traits associated with American and European cinema as to see how these cinema types differ from that of India. The cinema industry in Europe has a highly complex make-up, reflecting the cultural and expressive diversity of individual nations. If, on the one hand, the quantitative production levels of Europe’s cinema industry have remained high (at roughly 600 full-length features a year, on a par with the United States, However only a minority of European titles manage to cross the borders of their country of origin. This is one major difference from Indian film with it having one of the highest worldly distribution figures off all cinemas. Hollywood makes films for the public, and if the public’s tastes change then Hollywood films will also change. They pay money to have their ideals massaged and their values reaffirmed. And if Americans won’t pay money for it, then Hollywood doesn’t want to sell it. The narrative of Hollywood films’ is a straight plot, in which nothing is left unclear, unsettling or unexplained and every shot is justified by a link to strictest cause and  effect. Hollywood films are often viewed as dulling the mind. This is far from the case in Indian cinema where the plot is created with the aim of making people think about what has happened, this is often applied to their own lives in some way. In America people generally view films for mere entertainment where as Indian people watch films and use the moral codes implied within the narrative to better their own lives. Special effects, violence, and actors’ names are often major themes that bring Americans to the movies. While most Hollywood films are made purely for entertainment value, many foreign films are entertaining as well as forcing the viewer think and question their surroundings at the same time. In India, movies are more than simply entertainment. They are dreams, escape, fantasy and alternative realities – a necessity in dealing with the drudge of everyday existence and routine. Especially now that they have the cinematography, acting, scripting and associated parts down like a science – to the point of stretching the limits of imagination and modifying what â€Å"is† into another realm altogether. While perhaps lacking in the area of Western sophistication, this lack is probably the biggest advantage Indian films have over the rest of the World. They are simply fun to watch. Indians enjoy seeing people interacting with each other and the films reflect societal practices and norms. The form of Indian cinema has a great deal to do with how popular entertainment has been traditionally perceived and defined in India. â€Å"Entertainment is quantified as a combination of the essence of the nine basic emotions. Complete entertainment is possible only when the nine emotions, love, hate, joy, sorrow, pity, disgust, fear, anger and compassion, are blended expertly in different ways around a predominant emotion. The main emotion could be love, joy, hate or compassion, but if not complemented by the others, is neither defined nor experienced.† (V. Damodaran & M. Unnithan-Kumar) There are certain traits that are commonly associated with Bollywood movies. These include: â€Å"XExtensive use of other performing arts such as singing and dancing â€Å"X Treatment/representation of women â€Å"XThe importance of the Actor within society â€Å"XThemes centred on Moral values and cultural struggles â€Å"XLarge studio sets with elaborate decoration & elaborate and brightly coloured costumes Bollywood is a term used to describe the Indian film industry, the largest in the world in terms of film production. In 1990 India produced 800+ films (more than two a day). Bollywood’s cinema going audience, in India, Pakistan and elsewhere is also one of the biggest in the world. Song & Dance Indian films are known all over the world, but ask an English or American person and they will probably say Indian films are about singing and dancing. If you ask someone in the Middle East they may say Indian films revolve around action and if you ask someone elsewhere in Asia they often define Indian movies as love stories. So, overall it is probably Westerners who most of all see Indian movies as just song-and-dance. This is probably partly down to ignorance on our behalf and also due to the fact that musical film has been largely abandoned in Europe and America, or it is defined under its own genre ‘musical’ which often deters people from watching.. Therefore I feel this is a good place to start in terms of considering what makes Indian film different from American or European film. The narrative structure of popular Indian films is punctuated with songs and dances, usually around six songs. The origins of this tradition can be traced back to the ballets in Indian dance-drama. These song and dances are often referred to as filmi music (a desi word) . Song and dance can have many narrative functions within an Indian film. It can be used to show the  emotions and show the real interiority of characters. These song and dance sequences are more often than not used as merely musical interludes or rest periods between the dialogues of the film. The music director’s main effort in the film is to compose attractive melodies set to often fine lyrics of a high literary quality. In early Indian film the heroes and heroines sang their way through the four hour movie. The acting quality and appearance of the character counted for little as it was singing talent that was important. To this day the Indian film song has a unique thrill. The music director, the songwriter and the playback singers have an unparalleled status in India. These song and dance sequences have played a very important part in Indian films since their birth, around 1913, and they have contained some of the best Urdu and Hindi poetry within its lyrics – this was especially the case during the 1950†² and 1960’s period of filmmaking. This era was considered the golden era in this genre with films such as Pakeezah (purity), directed by Kamaal Amrohi, Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje, directed by Rajaram Vankudre Shantaram as excellent examples of the use of song and dance. The most popular form of music in India still continues to be the film song. In the last few years, the market for popular music has grown massively. â€Å"Today, it is not unusual for films to be designed around a set of songs rather than the other way around. There is an increasing trend to use the narrative of a film simply as a string to hang song and dance numbers, much like a music hall revue. With the new audiovisual technology available, they can often resemble an extended music video peppered with action and dialogue.†(V. Damodaran & M. Unnithan-Kumar) Indian cinema has some of the best song and dance sequences in the world cinema and often excels Hollywood musicals through the way in which they link their dialogue and musical lyrics. Examples of this quality can be seen in the work of Guru Dutt in films such as Pyaasa (1957) which he Directed, wrote, produced and also starred in. This film is interesting because the songs are often inserted in the story itself, (apart from the Guru Dutt-Mala Sinha duet scene) and are not only musical picturizations of fantasies, dreams, etc., as it is often the case in later Bollywood films. Examples of his song sequences rival the best in world cinema and in many cases excel the Hollywood musical in the subtle linking of dialogue and lyric. These  directors transformed the film song into an art form and confirmed that music was Indian cinema’s greatest strength. Even today, Indian filmmakers are aware that their moment of cinematic glory can come from the songs. Every decade since the 19 50s, a huge majority of films that would otherwise have been completely forgotten are saved by a marvellous musical sequence in which melody, lyrics, camera movements, choreography and performance combine to magical effect. More than anything the phenomenon of song and dance gives Indian Cinema its unique identity. Unlike Hollywood, where the ‘Musical’ was a separate genre by itself, song and dance has been an integral part of the narrative in Indian Cinema be it in any language or whichever genre often leading and us Westerners often describe them as Indian musicals – often not realised by us that almost every different genre of Indian film contains song and dance. Film songs have been used to express all aspects of Indian life – weddings, funerals, state occasions, religious festivals, parades, parties or political conventions. Over the years, The Indian film song has evolved and many critics say that it has no reached perfection. Consequently film music is by far the most popular brand of music in India. Film makers have realised the importance of the song and dance in their films. Even today with all the visual aspects of the Indian films such as costume and sets, the song is often the single factor that determines the success or failure of a film in India. Stars of Indian films are often seen as heroes and are idolised. Nasreen Munni Kabir tells us how â€Å"people want to act, talk and look like their idols. In every decade, barbers have been asked to give their clients an Ashok Kumar, or Dilip Kumar or Shah Rukh Khan cut and tailors have always been told to copy the clothes of the beautiful Madhubala or Aishwarya Rai†. Until the early 90s, star gossip was almost exclusively reported in the dozens of film magazines but now interest in the world of cinema is so extensive that virtually every daily newspaper devotes endless print space to who is doing what in Bollywood. Representation of Women & Sexuality In early Indian cinema codes of practise followed by performing arts were also applied to the film industry. One ‘rule’ was that women of high reputation discouraged from working on screen as it was considered unacceptable by society for women to perform to perform in front of men whom were total strangers. As a result of this rule men played the roles of women. Nasreen Munni Kabir2, in his book Bollywood: The Indian cinema story, discusses how women were only gradually accepted in theatre but soon after the production of films in India women became increasing willing to act on screen, however Muslim or Hindu actresses were often frowned upon and thought to have not come from good families. This was not the case for Jewish or Christian actresses; these were seen as being above this type of criticism because of their religion. According to the Manusmriti, an ancient classical work dealing with laws, ethics, and morality, a woman should be subject to her father in childhood, in youth to her husband, and when her husband is dead, to her children. Within the guidelines of the Manusmriti, women do not enjoy independence. Women are supposed to adhere to the role of a happy figure that takes care of the household. They are supposed to be obedient to their husbands and go to every length to honour them even after death. These ethics were transferred to film and the role of the woman in Indian films is often one of extreme loyalty towards her father, husband and children. The female character is often a centrepiece to a narrative with other, predominantly male characters working around her. In traditional Indian Society, there are certain prescribed roles which regulate the conduct of women. For example, the conception of the woman as Sita is prevalent in Indian society and film. Sita is a character in the Ramayana, one of the great epics, which embodies values and the differences between right and wrong. She is the wife of Rama, who is representative of many virtues including honor, courage, and loyalty. Much of Indian popular cinema is influenced by the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, another epic, which involves the hero Lord Krishna. Sita is the ideal woman and wife that  sees her husband as an idol. Indian popular cinema represents this role of the ideal wife’s admiration and unfaltering respect. In a great deal of popular Indian Cinema the role of the women can be separated into four categories. The four categories to consider include the ideal wife, ideal mother, the vamp, and the courtesan (Dissanayake 77). The Ideal Wife (often Heroine) This character is represented by sexual purity and fidelity. The wife must be consistent with traditional Indian roles by honouring the family and depending on the husband. The definintion of the heroine in early Indian films was closely linked with mythological charaters. Nasreen Munni Kabir uses the virtous Sati Savitri as the perfect model of the women. Savitri is famous in mythology for bringing back her husband from the clutches of Yam, the god of death through her endless devotion to him. From that moment on all portrayals of women in cinema were measured against Savitri. Heriones were almost always seen as virtuous, weepy, helpless characters whose sole existence relied upon the presence of a man in her life – husband, brother or father. If the heroine were not married then it was assumed that she was a virgin. The basic idea in all Indian films from 1930’s to the present day is that the heroine will finally get her man. Rani Mukerji states â€Å"The ultimate goal of the heroine is to get her man in the end†¦This may not be shared by the hero. Whether it’s a comedy, a romantic film, an action film, a horror film – you always have romance winning in the end†. The Ideal Mother Indian reference to the mother involves religious suggestion. The country is connected with the mother goddess, Shakti, who represents great strength. The role of the mother in Indian film is often seen as a strong force, such as in Mother India. This film showcased the Indian Woman completely with her strength and emotions. (1957). Radha (Nargis) is a mother, who is left to look after her sons after her husband leaves out of shame of not being able to fend for his family, due to an accident. Radha throughout the film faces  many struggles, raising three boys, fighting poverty and debt, as well as other tragedy in the family. She is a representation of the mother being strong and the backbone of any family. Mehboob Khan’s Mother India is really a great tribute to an Indian woman. The Vamp The vamp in Indian film is modern and imitates western women and is usually more of an equal partner to the man than the heroine. Her stereotypical behaviour can include smoking, drinking, and dancing. She represents unacceptable behaviour and is seen as unwholesome and is almost always punished for her behaviour. Indian films are representative of Indian society†¦from beginning to end it is full of values†¦The character of the vamp is used to pass judgement on sections of society that are not acceptable to the traditional middle class†¦The middle class always pats itself on the back when it see ‘the vamp’: ‘Oh see, she’s smoking and drinking and she’s wearing those skimpy clothes. My daughter in doesn’t, mother doesn’t etc.†( Archana Puran Singh) These images help the middle classes reaffirm their faith in their own values. An example of this type of woman is the character of Chandramukhi, a prositue in the film Dev das (P.C. Barua) whom falls in love with Devdas (hero) however, he loves Paro. There is one film that goes against moral convention in Indian cinema, with the hero choosing to fall in love and end up with the vamp – Guru Dutts Pyassa. The Courtesan The courtesan is outside the normal realm of Indian womanhood she is a type of dancing girl. She embodies sexuality. She is a character who helps with the physical and emotional needs of men. Often in Indian film, she gives the man comfort and care, after which, he leaves her to desperately mourn the loss of him. Archana Puran Singh explains the difference between the vamp and the courtesan â€Å"The difference is that the vamp has choices. The courtesan is someone who had no choice in being a courtesan. †¦there is always said to be a sad story behind her.† Indians are therefore sympathetic towards this character whereas the vamp is frowned upon. â€Å"If the courtesan  is performing a dance it’s not out of choice and amazingly very often the courtesan remains a virgin with purity of mind and body†. The hero is attracted to her because she represents a forbidden aspect of sexuality, one not shown in the heroine, but shown often too much in the vamp. The he ro can watch her and she often will fall in love with him – often causing confusion in communication causing what is often depicted in Indian cinema – The love triangle. Although Indian cinema continues to change and evolve, reflecting new trends in gender relations, at least in very traditional Indian cinema women who live by these traditional norms are portrayed as happy and ethical. Women who go against these rules of narrative and culture in film are punished and seen as immoral. Indian films never show scenes of a sexual nature; even kissing was unknown in Indian film for a long time, however, this is not to say that Indian films lack passion and desire. The women in Indian films are often the focus of male desire. Public displays of affection are associated with western life and tend to be omitted from Indian film. Although more recent films often include scenes of overt sexual relations, traditionally Indian film has used three techniques to convey this sexuality as categorized by Richards as tribal dress, dream sequences/wet saris, and behind the bush. Tribal Dress Because many Indian films involve music and dance, Richards explains, â€Å"tribal costumes are used for the exposure of vast expanses of the body, in particular the pelvic region† ( Dissanayake ). Dream Sequences/Wet Sari Dreams offer the ability to express sexual desires and explore forbidden pleasure. Wet saris are often involved in these dreams and are caused by a downpour in which the woman’s flimsy sari allows for exposure of the female body. Dance director Lollipop, known for choreographing the song ‘Aati Kya  khandala’ in the film Ghulum (Vikram Bhatt, 1998) notes that â€Å"the wet sari must not only have the heroine wearing a sari but the hero wearing a cap so that the rain falls in front of his eyes† this is a sequence that has become a audience expectation. Psychotherapist Udayan Patel has his own views on this wet sari dance. â€Å"The gyrations are repeated and the use of the eyes and lips, all suggest overt sexuality. In our culture, we are split between living through private imaginations and social behaviour. .. . There is no kiss, there is no sex. If its explicit they people cant ignore it and parents will say it’s a bad film. I don’t think producers want this as they would lose big audiences. So sexuality is expressed through dance and the movement you of sexual intercourse without touching or kissing.† Behind the Bush The music and dance in films often gives characters the opportunity to run behind the bushes quickly. Afterwards the woman wipes off her lips, insinuating what occurred. Importance of actor within society There are high levels of devotion and hero worship towards leading stars of Indian cinema. People want to act, talk and look like their idols. In every decade, barbers have been asked to give their clients an Ashok Kumar or Dilip Kumar or Shah Rukh Khan Cut and tailors have always been told to copy the clothes of the beautiful Madhubala or Aishwarya Rai. Until the early 90s, star gossip was almost exclusively reported in the dozens of film magazines but now interest in the world of cinema is so extensive that virtually every daily newspaper devotes endless print space to whom is doing what in Bollywood. It is not only in terms of magazines and haircuts that these people are followed, it has been known for highly acclaimed actors or actresses to become members of government, as it is believed that because people follow them on screen and idolise them then this will be the case in government where they can actively change the lives of their fans and society in general. One example of this occurrence is with Shabana Azmi. Shabana is an internationally acclaimed actress, Member of the Indian  Parliament, and UN Goodwill Ambassador. She is the winner of an unprecedented five National Awards for Best Actress in India for the films Ankur (1974), Arth (1983), Khandhar (1984), Paar (1985), and Godmother (1999). She is also an extremely vocal and committed social activist, for which she was presented the Rajiv Gandhi Award as well as the Yash Bhartiya award from the government of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. Most significantly she was awarded the Padma Shri in 1988 by the Government of India, an award given to eminent citizens for excellence in their field and distinguished contribution to society. She describes why she was driven into politics after movie making. â€Å"What ultimately drove me towards politics was this essential contradiction: if the whole purpose of art is to sensitize people, how can you say that this sensitivity is only going to be directed towards yourself and giving a better performance? This is simply not possible since the best resources of an actor must come from life itself. So when you are in films playing characters struggling with social injustice and exploitation, then a time comes when you can no longer treat your work like a nine-to-five job. I could n ot think that as of 6:00pm everyday, I would no longer concern myself with the lives of the people I choose to play. This turn came about some time in the early-80s† (Shabana Azmi) Moral Values & Cultural struggles Indian movies usually centre around moral values and binary oppositions such as unconditional love, the conflict between fathers and sons, revenge, redemption, the hero, the villain, survival against the odds, the importance of honour and self-respect, and the mission to uphold religious and moral values – grand themes that Hollywood generally leaves to the now rarely produced epic. The characterizations in Indian films are often based on archetypes of good and evil. Here are some examples of this binary opposition in Indian film: GOODEVIL HeroineVamp HeroVillain Indian societyWesternisation MoneyPoverty Love Loneliness Ever Indian film shows a struggle between at least one set of these oppositions above. Independence films had tended to deal with the confrontation of Western culture with Indian tradition. Westernization was seen as an aspect of colonialism. Western values were considered inimical and threatening to Indian familial social tradition. Villains tended to wear western clothes; westernized women were seen as vamps. In the hero versus villain situation, it was always the villain who was westernized and therefore, depraved and perverse. The Indian tradition was seen as being liberating and also the sole repository of moral and social values. Costumes & Setting Other key contributors to Indian film are the set and costume designs. There is a huge demand for exciting, colourful action scenes as this has great appeal for the young male audience. This is also how the handful of set and costume designers work. In the Bollywood movie, set design can range from the rickety and make-shift to the elaborate and lavish. Costume design has always been important but never as much as in today’s culture of glamour and beauty. Bollywood designers have become so trendy that many create clothes for exclusive weddings of the ultra rich as a side line. The unique style of Indian cinema is explored through an analysis of the mis-en-scene of the film itself–the locations, the sets and costumes–and shows how they, along with the song and dance sequences, construct the ‘look’ and meaning of a film. Use of hairstyles and make-up is examined in the context of  representations of the body in order to explore changing ideas of beauty and sexuality within the film genre. Conclusion From this essay I can conclude that Indian film is very different from that of American or European films in many ways. Some of these being: *Indian cinema is more socially challenging than American cinema *Indian film delivers messages about how Indian people should live their lives *Indian cinema treats women as objects inferior to men *Women are stereotyped either good or bad ( heroine or tramp) *Indian cinema always has romance *Indian cinema does not use spectactular specil effects *Indian cinema does not include any sexual relations *Indian cinema focuses around song and dance Eventually, Americans and British alike can begin to appreciate a more intellectual type of film such as the films popular in India. We need to learn to be willing to open our minds to new possibilities and new ideas. Once we are willing to think for ourselves occasionally, Hollywood can stand out as the film capitol it supposedly is While Indian cinema is unique to Indian culture and history, its energetic style, the emotional appeal of its themes, the glamorous lifestyles portrayed, the enduring melodies and lush settings, all contribute to its increasing popularity worldwide.

Critique on Constraint-Based Approaches for Balancing Bike-Sharing Systems The WritePass Journal

Critique on Constraint-Based Approaches for Balancing Bike-Sharing Systems Summary: Critique on Constraint-Based Approaches for Balancing Bike-Sharing Systems ). Moreover, the article does not clearly illustrate its results and does not offer a thorough and simple explanation of what the authors have found and what their findings mean. Thus, it may be difficult for the reader to comprehend the authors’ findings and what benefit the article has given to readers related to the topic in question. Accordingly, there are various other approaches that the authors could have used in order to enhance the level of comprehension of the article and increase its usefulness for ordinary readers. The first alternative suggested approach for the authors of this article was to adopt a qualitative methodology consisting of interviews with the customers of the bike-sharing systems and gain in-depth knowledge of the prevailing problem and suggested solutions. However, there may be some limitations to using this methodology which include confirming the validity of the results and analyzing or measuring data. The quantitative approach allows the authors to appropriately measure and analyze data and confirm that the results obtained are authentic and valid. Using qualitative data may mean that the results obtained may contain elements of interviewer or respondent bias (Flick, 2009). Another alternative approach that the authors could have used consists of conducting a thorough literature review on the topic which could have helped increase reader understanding and retain reader attention. However, the main problem involved in adopting this approach lies in the fact that this topic may not have an expanse of literature available for analysis and it may have been difficult for the authors to gather this level of information. The authors could have still enhanced understanding of this study by including more previous literature or including related topics to the analysis (Daymon Holloway, 2010).The authors could have also opted to simplify the quantitative analysis and use simple statistical measurements in order to enhance reader understanding and comprehension. Methods such as regression, descriptive statistics, and other statistical measures could have been used instead of complicated heuristics calculations. This would have enabled readers to understand the fi ndings in a better manner and improve comprehension (Liamputtong Ezzy, 2006). However, the article was well-written and thoroughly explained which enhanced reader attention and enabled comprehension. Moreover, the calculations enhanced validity and authenticity of the results and enabled the appropriate calculation of the information needed. The methodology of the paper could have been simplified and the structure could have been improved with further sub-headings and a broader literature review (Denzin Lincoln, 2011). Thus, while the article had certain shortcomings it also had quite a few strengths in the sense of the level of expression, the level of understanding, and the quantitative analysis conducted. However, the authors of the study can improve the clarity and comprehension of the study by incorporating the recommendations mentioned and the authors should also expand upon the section on further research and include further ideas for future research. Suggestions for Further Work: The authors of this study can further conduct research upon other methods of transport or can replicate this study by implementing a qualitative methodology in the future. The authors can also conduct research on other new business activities and possibly choose topics which cater to a vaster market rather than only catering to a niche business activity. References Liamputtong, P., Ezzy, D. (2006).Qualitative research methods. New York: Oxford University Press. Daymon, C., Holloway, I. (2010).Qualitative research methods in public relations and marketing communications. Routledge. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011).The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Sage. Miller, T., Mauthner, M., Birch, M., Jessop, J. (Eds.). (2012).Ethics in qualitative research. Sage. Flick, U. (2009).An introduction to qualitative research. Sage. Alston, M., Bowles, W. (2012).Research for social workers: An introduction to methods. Allen Unwin. Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. (Eds.). (2010).SAGE Qualitative Research Methods. SAGE Publications Limited. Method of Gathering Data: The literature gathered for this critique was gathered from journals, books, and online sources. Particular keywords were used in order to find relevant sources for this critique and emphasis was given upon finding sources regarding qualitative and quantitative analysis. The literature used for this critique was thoroughly read, examined, and relevant points were extracted in order to form an analysis for the article in question.